Accessing Computer systems through Windows Operating System | ICT For APTET 2022

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

10.1              Windows Desktop

Desktop is the main screen area that you see after you turn on your computer and log on to Windows. Like the top of an actual desk, it serves as a surface for your work. When you

open programs or folders, they appear on the desktop. You can also put things on the desktop, such as files and folders, and arrange them in the way you want. Desktop is made up of Desktop icons. Figure 11a shows a typical window desktop with some icons.

Figure 10a. Windows Desktop

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The desktop is sometimes defined more broadly to include the taskbar. The taskbar sits at the bottom of your screen. It shows you which programs are running and allows you to switch between them. It also contains the Start button , which you can use to access programs, folders, and computer settings.

10.1.1                Working With Desktop Icons

Icons are small pictures that represent files, folders, programs, and other items that you have on your system. Double-clicking a desktop icon starts or opens the item it represents. When you first start Windows, you’ll see some of these icons on your desktop: The Recycle Bin, my computer etc. Some examples of desktop icons are shown below.

Figure 10b. Examples of Desktop Icons

Practice 1

Adding and Removing Icons from the Desktop

You can choose which icons appear on the desktop—you can add or remove an icon at any time. Some people like a clean, uncluttered desktop with few or no icons. Others place dozens of icons on their desktop to give them quick access to frequently used programs, files, and folders.

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If you want easy access from the desktop to your favorite files or programs, you can create shortcuts to them. A shortcut is an icon that represents a link to an item, rather than the item itself. When you double-click a shortcut, the item opens. If you delete a shortcut, only the shortcut is removed, not the original item. You can identify shortcuts by the arrow on their icon. See the diagram in figure 11c.

Figure 10c. File icon (left) and a shortcut icon (right)

Practice 2

Adding a Shortcut to the Desktop

1. Locate the item that you want to create a shortcut for.
   1. Right-click the item, click Send to, and then click Desktop (create shortcut).
   1. The shortcut icon appears on your desktop.

Practice 3

Moving a file from a folder to the desktop

1. Open the folder that contains the file.
2. Drag the file to the desktop.

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Practice 4

Removing an Icon from the Desktop

Right-click the icon, and then click Delete.

If the icon is a shortcut, only the shortcut is removed; the original item is not deleted.

Practice 4

Moving Icons Around

Windows stacks icons in columns on the left side of the desktop. But you’re not stuck with that arrangement. You can move an icon by dragging it to a new place on the desktop. You can also have Windows automatically arrange your icons.

1. Right-click an empty area of the desktop,
2. Click View, and then click Auto arrange icons.

Windows stacks your icons in the upper-left corner and locks them in place. To unlock the icons so that you can move them again, click Auto arrange icons again, clearing the check mark next to it.

By default, Windows spaces icons evenly on an invisible grid. To place icons closer together or with more precision, turn off the grid.

1. Right-click an empty area of the desktop,
2. Point to View, and then click Align icons to grid to clear the check mark.
3. Repeat the steps to turn the grid back on.

Practice 5

Selecting Multiple Icons

To move or delete a bunch of icons at once, you must first select all of them. Click an empty area of the desktop and drag the mouse. Surround the icons that you want to select with the rectangle that

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appears. Then release the mouse button. Now you can drag the icons as a group or delete them.

Practice 6

Hiding Desktop Icons

If you want to temporarily hide all of your desktop icons without actually removing them.

1. Right-click an empty part of the desktop
2. Click View, and then click Show desktop icons to clear the check mark from that option.

Now no icons are displayed on the desktop. You can get them back by clicking Show desktop icons again.

10.1.2                The Recycle Bin

When you delete a file or folder, it doesn’t actually get deleted right away, it goes to the Recycle Bin. That’s a good thing, because if you ever change your mind and decide you need a deleted file, you can get it back.

Figure 10d. Recycle Bin when empty (left) and full (right)

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If you’re sure that you won’t need the deleted items again, you can empty the Recycle Bin. Doing that will permanently delete the items and reclaim any disk space they were using.

10.2              The Start Menu

The Start menu is the main gateway to your computer’s programs, folders, and settings. It’s called a menu because it provides a list of choices, just as a restaurant menu does. And as “start” implies, it’s often the place that you’ll go to start or open things.

Figure 10e.      Start menu

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Some common activities we use the start menu for are:

1. Start programs
2. Open commonly used folders
3. Search for files, folders, and programs
4. Adjust computer settings
5. Get help with the Windows operating system
6. Turn off the computer
7. Log off from Windows or switch to a different user account

Practice 7

Open the Start Menu

Click the Start button

1. The large left pane shows a short list of programs on your computer. Your computer manufacturer can customize this list, so its exact appearance will vary. Clicking All Programs displays a complete list of programs (more on this later).
2. At the bottom of the left pane is the search box, which allows you to look for programs and files on your computer by typing in search terms.
3. The right pane provides access to commonly used folders, files, settings, and features. It’s also where you go to log off from Windows or turn off your computer.

Practice 8

Opening Programs from the Start Menu

One of the most common uses of the Start menu is opening programs installed on your computer. To open a program shown in the left pane of the Start menu, click it. The program opens and the Start menu closes.

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If you don’t see the program you want, click All Programs at the bottom of the left pane. The left pane displays a long list of programs in alphabetical order, followed by a list of folders. Clicking the program icons starts the program, and the Start menu closes. If you’re ever unsure what a program does, move the pointer over its icon or name.

A box appears that often contains a description of the program. For example, pointing to Calculator displays this message: “Performs basic arithmetic tasks with an on-screen calculator.” This trick works for items in the right pane of the Start menu, too.

You might notice that over time, the lists of programs in your Start menu change. This happens for two reasons.

1. When you install new programs, they get added to the All Programs list.
2. The Start menu detects which programs you use the most, and places them in the left pane for quick access.

10.2.1                The Search Box

The search box is one of the most convenient ways to find things on your computer. The exact location of the items doesn’t matter, the search box will scour your programs and all of the folders in your personal folder (which includes Documents, Pictures, Music, Desktop, and other common locations). It will also search your e-mail messages, saved instant messages, appointments, and contacts.

Figure 10f.      Start menu search box

Practice 9

To use the search box

Open the Start menu and typed the name of information you are looking for. You don’t need to click inside the box first. As you type, the search results appear above the search box in the left pane of the Start menu.

A program, file, or folder will appear as a search result if:

1. Any word in its title matches or begins with your search term.
   1. Any text in the actual contents of the file—such as the text in a word-processing document—matches or begins with your search term.
   1. Any word in a property of the file, such as the author, matches or begins with your search term.

Click any search result to open it. Or, click the Clear button     to clear the search results and return to the main programs list. You can also click See more results to search your entire computer. Besides searching programs, files and folders, and communications, the

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search box also looks through your Internet favorites and the history of websites you’ve visited. If any of these webpages include the search term, they appear under a heading called “Files.”

10.2.2                Start Menu Right Pane

The right pane of the Start menu contains links to parts of Windows that you’re likely to use frequently. Here they are, from top to bottom:

1. Personal folder. Opens your personal folder, which is named for whoever is currently logged on to Windows. For example, if the current user is Molly Clark, the folder will be named Molly Clark. This folder, in turn, contains user- specific files, including the My Documents, My Music, My Pictures, and My Videos folders.
   1. Documents. Opens the Documents library, where you can access and open text files, spreadsheets, presentations, and other kinds of documents.
   1. Pictures. Opens the Pictures library, where you can access and view digital pictures and graphics files.
   1. Music. Opens the Music library, where you can access and play music and other audio files.
   1. Games. Opens the Games folder, where you can access all of the games on your computer.
   1. Computer. Opens a window where you can access disk drives, cameras, printers, scanners, and other hardware connected to your computer.
   1. Control Panel. Opens Control Panel, where you can customize the appearance and functionality of your computer, install or uninstall programs, set up network connections, and manage user accounts.
   1. Devices and Printers. Opens a window where you can view information about the printer, mouse, and other devices installed on your computer.

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1. Default Programs. Opens a window where you can choose which program you want Windows to use for activities such as web browsing.
   1. Help and Support. Opens Windows Help and Support, where you can browse and search Help topics about using Windows and your computer. See Getting help.

At the bottom of the right pane is the Shutdown button. Click the Shutdown button to turn off your computer.

Clicking the arrow next to the Shutdown button displays a menu with additional options for switching users, logging off, restarting, or shutting down

.

Figure 10g. Shut Down Options in the Start Menu

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Practice 10

Customize the Start Menu

We can control which items appear in the Start menu. For example, you can pin icons for your favorite programs to the Start menu for easy access, or remove programs from the list. You can also hide or show certain items in the right pane.

To pin a program icon to the Start menu: If you use a program regularly, you can create a shortcut to it by pinning the program icon to the Start menu. Pinned program icons appear on the left side of the Start menu.

1. Right-click the program icon you want to pin to the Start menu, and then click Pin to Start Menu.
2. To unpin a program icon, right-click it, and then click Unpin from Start Menu.

To remove a program icon from the Start menu: Removing a program icon from the Start menu doesn’t remove it from the

All Programs list or uninstall the program.

1. Click the Start button
2. Right-click the program icon you want to remove from the Start menu, and then click Remove from this list.

To move the Start button: The Start button is located on the taskbar. Although you can’t remove the Start button from the taskbar, you can move the taskbar—and the Start button along with it.

1. Right-click an empty space on the taskbar. If Lock the taskbar has a check mark beside it, click it to remove the check mark.
2. Click an empty space on the taskbar, and then hold down the mouse button as you drag the taskbar to one of the four edges of the desktop. When the taskbar is where you want it, release the mouse button.

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Note: To lock the taskbar into place, right-click an empty space on the taskbar, and then click Lock the Taskbar so that the check mark reappears. Locking the taskbar helps prevent it from being moved or resized accidentally.

Practice 11

Open Taskbar and Start Menu Properties

1. Click the Start button.
   1. Click Control Panel
   1. Click Appearance and Personalization
   1. Click Taskbar and Start Menu

Practice 12

To clear recently opened programs: Clear the Store and display recently opened programs in the Start menu check box.

To clear recently opened files: Clear the Store and display recently opened items in the Start menu and the taskbar check box, and then click OK.

Practice 13

To adjust the number of shortcuts for frequently used programs The Start menu displays shortcuts for the programs you use most frequently. You can change the number of program shortcuts displayed (this can affect the height of the Start menu).

1. Open Taskbar and Start Menu Properties by clicking the Start button,
2. Clicking Control Panel,
3. Clicking Appearance and Personalization, and then clicking Taskbar and Start Menu.
4. Click the Start Menu tab, and then click Customize.

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• In the Customize Start Menu dialog box, in the Number of recent programs to display box, enter the number of programs you want to display on the Start menu,
• Click OK

Practice 14

To customize the right pane of the Start menu

We can add or remove items, such as Computer, Control Panel, and Pictures, that appear on the right side of the Start menu. You can also change some items so that they appear as links or menus.

1. Open Taskbar and Start Menu Properties
   1. Clicking Control Panel
   1. Clicking Appearance and Personalization
   1. Clicking Taskbar and Start Menu
   1. Click the Start Menu tab, and then click Customize.
   1. In the Customize Start Menu dialog box, select the options in the list that you want, click OK, and then click OK again.

Practice 15

To restore Start menu default settings

We can restore the Start menu to its original, default settings.

1. Open Taskbar and Start Menu Properties
2. Clicking Control Panel
3. Clicking Appearance and Personalization
4. Clicking Taskbar and Start Menu
5. Click the Start Menu tab, and then click Customize.
6. In the Customize Start Menu dialog box, click Use Default Settings, click OK, and then click OK again.

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To search for programs from the Start menu: Click the Start button Picture of the Start button, and then type a word or phrase in the search box.

10.3          The Taskbar

The taskbar is the long horizontal bar at the bottom of your screen. Unlike the desktop, which can get obscured by open windows, the taskbar is almost always visible. It has three main sections:

1. The Start button , which opens the Start menu.
2. The middle section, which shows you which programs and files you have open and allows you to quickly switch between them.
3. The notification area, which includes a clock and icons (small pictures) that communicate the status of certain programs and computer settings.

If we open more than one program or file at a time, you can quickly start piling up open windows on your desktop. Because windows often cover each other or take up the whole screen, it’s sometimes hard to see what else is underneath or remember what you’ve already opened. That’s where the taskbar comes in handy. Whenever you open a program, folder, or file, Windows creates a corresponding button on the taskbar. The button shows an icon that represents the open program. In the diagram figure10h below, two programs are open. Calculator and Minesweeper, and each has its own button on the taskbar.

Figure 10h. Program with its own button on the taskbar

Notice how the taskbar button for Minesweeper is highlighted. That indicates that Minesweeper is the active window, meaning that it’s in front of any other open windows and is ready for you to interact with. To switch to another window, click its taskbar button. In this example, clicking the taskbar button for Calculator brings its window to the front.

Figure 10i. Taskbar button shown calculator window active

Practice 14

Minimize and Restore Windows

When a window is active (its taskbar button is highlighted), clicking its taskbar button minimizes the window. That means that the window disappears from the desktop. Minimizing a window doesn’t close it or delete its contents, it temporarily removes it from the desktop. In the figure 10j below, Calculator is minimized, but not closed. You can tell it’s still running because it has a button on the taskbar.

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Figure 10j. Minimizing minesweeper leaves only its taskbar button visible

You can also minimize a window by clicking the minimize button in the upper-right corner of the window.

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Figure 10k. Minimize button (left)

To restore a minimized window (make it show up again on the desktop), click its taskbar button.

Practice 15

To See Previews of Open Windows

When we move our mouse pointer to a taskbar button, a small picture appears that shows you a miniature version of the corresponding window. This preview, also called a thumbnail, is especially useful. And if one of your windows has video or animation playing, you’ll see it playing in the preview. We can see thumbnails only if Aero can run on your computer and you’re running a Windows 7 theme.

The Notification Area

The notification area, at the far right of the taskbar, includes a clock and a group of icons.

It looks like figure 10l.

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Figure 10l. The notification area, at the far right of the taskbar

These icons communicate the status of something on your computer or provide access to certain settings. The set of icons you see depends on which programs or services you have installed and how your computer manufacturer set up your computer. When you move your pointer to a particular icon, you will see that icon’s name or the status of a setting. For example, pointing to the volume icon    shows the current volume level of your computer. Pointing to the network icon     displays information about whether you are connected to a network, the connection speed, and the signal strength. Double-clicking an icon in the notification area usually opens the program or setting associated with it. For example, double-clicking the volume icon opens the volume controls. Double- clicking the network icon opens Network and Sharing Center.

Occasionally, an icon in the notification area will display a small pop-up window (called a notification) to notify you about something. For example, after adding a new hardware device to your computer, you might see the diagram in figure 10m.

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Figure 10m. The notification area displays a message after new hardware is installed

Click the Close button   in the upper-right corner of the notification to dismiss it. If you don’t do anything, the notification will fade away on its own after a few seconds.

To reduce clutter, Windows hides icons in the notification area when you haven’t used them in a while. If icons become hidden, click the Show hidden icons button to temporarily display the hidden icons figure 10n.

Figure11n. Hidden icons button

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Practice 16

Customize the Taskbar

There are many ways to customize the taskbar to suit your preferences. For example, you can move the entire taskbar to the left, right, or top edge of the screen. You can make the taskbar larger, have Windows automatically hide it when you’re not using it, and add toolbars to it. By default taskbar is located at the bottom edge of your window desk top but it can be move to left, right, and top of desktop by following this procedures.

1. Open Taskbar and Start Menu Properties
   1. Clicking Control Panel
   1. Clicking Appearance and Personalization
   1. Clicking Taskbar and Start Menu
   1. Click the Start Menu tab.
   1. Select the options from taskbar location on the screen from the dialog box

10.4              Desktop GadgetsWindows contains mini-programs called gadgets, which offer information at a glance and provide easy access to frequently used tools. For example, you can use gadgets to display a picture slide show or view continuously updated headlines. Some of the gadgets that come with Windows 7 are:

1. Calendar
2. Clock
3. Weather
4. Feed Headlines
5. Slide Show
6. Picture Puzzle.

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10.4.1    Why Desktop Gadgets

Desktop gadgets can keep information and tools readily available for you to use. For example, you can display news headlines right next to your open programs. This way, if you want to keep track of what’s happening in the news while you work, you don’t have to stop what you’re doing to switch to a news website.

You can use the Feed Headlines gadget to show the latest news headlines from sources you choose. You don’t have to stop working on your document, because the headlines are always visible. If you see a headline that interests you, you can click that headline, and your web browser will open directly to the story.

Practice 17

Getting Started With Gadgets

To understand how to use gadgets, we will explore the Clock gadget.

How Does the Clock Work

Right-click the Clock, you’ll see a list of things you can do with the gadget, including closing the Clock, keeping it on top of your open windows, and changing the Clock’s options (such as its name, time zone, and appearance). Figures 10o illustrate this.

Figure10o. Clock gadget

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Which Gadgets Do I Have?

Before a gadget can be added, it must be installed on your computer. To see which gadgets are installed on your computer, do the following:

1. Right-click the desktop and click Gadgets.
   1. Click the scroll buttons to see all the gadgets.
   1. To see information about a gadget, click the gadget, and then click Show details.

Adding and Removing Gadgets

We can add any gadget that’s installed on our computer to the desktop. If we want, you can add multiple instances of a gadget. For example, if you are keeping track of time in two time zones, you can add two instances of the Clock gadget and set the time of each accordingly.

To add a gadget

Right-click the desktop and click Gadgets. Double-click a gadget to add it.

To remove a gadget

Right-click the gadget and then click Close Gadget

10.5              Windows

Whenever we open a program, file, or folder, it appears on our screen in a box or frame called a window (that’s where the Windows operating system gets its name). It is the platform for which all window base programs run. Because windows are everywhere in Windows, it’s important to understand how to move them, change their size, or just make them go away.

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10.5.1                Windows Components

Although the contents of every window are different, all windows share some things in common. For one thing, windows always appear on the desktop i.e. the main work area of your screen. In addition, most windows have the same basic components as shown in figure 110p.

Figure 10p. Parts of a typical window

1. Title bar. Displays the name of the document and program (or the folder name if you’re working in a folder).
   1. Minimize, Maximize, and Close buttons. These buttons hide the window, enlarge it to fill the whole screen, and close it, respectively (more details on these shortly).

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1. Menu bar. Contains items that you can click to make choices in a program. See Using menus, buttons, bars, and boxes.
   1. Scroll bar. for scrolling the contents of the window to see information that is currently out of view.
   1. Borders and corners. You can drag these with your mouse pointer to change the size of the window.

Other windows might have additional buttons, boxes, or bars. But they’ll usually have the basic parts described.

Practice 18 Moving a Window

To move a window, point to its title bar with the mouse pointer  then drag the window to the location that you want. (Dragging means pointing to an item, holding down the mouse button, moving the item with the pointer, and then releasing the mouse button)

Practice 19

Changing the Size of a Window

1. To make a window fill the entire screen, click its Maximize button or double-click the window’s title bar.
2. To return a maximized window to its former size, click its Restore button (this appears in place of the Maximize button). Or, double-click the window’s title bar.
3. To resize a window (make it smaller or bigger), point to any of the window’s borders or corners. When the mouse pointer changes to a two-headed arrow as in figure 10q drag the border or corner to shrink or enlarge the window.

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Figure10q. Drag a window’s border or corner to resize it

A window that is maximized cannot be resized. You must restore it to its previous size first.

Note: Although most windows can be maximized and resized, there are some windows that are fixed in size, such as dialog boxes.

Practice 20 Hiding a Window

Hiding a window is called minimizing it. If you want to get a window out of the way temporarily without closing it, minimize it. To minimize a window, click its Minimize button  . The window disappears from the desktop and is visible only as a button on the taskbar, the long horizontal bar at the bottom of your screen. To make a minimized window appear again on the desktop, click its

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taskbar button. The window appears exactly as it did before you minimized it.

Practice 21 Closing a Window

Closing a window removes it from the desktop and taskbar. If you’re done with a program or document and don’t need to return to it right away, close it.

To close a window, click its Close button . Note

• If you close a document without saving any changes you made, a message appears that gives you the option to save your changes.

Practice 22

Switching Between Windows

If we open more than one program or document, our desktop can quickly become cluttered with windows. Keeping track of which windows you have open isn’t always easy, because some windows might partially or completely cover others.

• Using the Taskbar: The taskbar provides a way to organize all of our windows. Each window has a corresponding button on the taskbar. To switch to another window, just click its taskbar button. The window appears in front of all other windows, becoming the active window. To easily identify a window, point to its taskbar button. When you point to a taskbar button, you’ll see a thumbnail-sized preview of the window, whether the content of the window is a document, a photo, or even a running video. This preview is especially useful if you can’t identify a window by its title alone.

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• Using ALT+TAB: We can switch to the previous window by pressing Alt +Tab, or cycle through all open windows and the desktop by holding down Alt and repeatedly pressing Tab. Release Alt to show the selected window.

• Using AERO FLIP 3D: Aero Flip 3D arranges your windows in a three-dimensional stack that you can quickly flip through. To use Flip 3D we follow the steps below:
  • Hold down the Windows logo key and press Tab to open Flip 3D.
  • While holding down the Windows logo key, press Tab repeatedly or rotate the mouse wheel to cycle through open windows. You can also press Right Arrow or Down Arrow to cycle forward one window, or press Left Arrow or Up Arrow to cycle backward one window.
  • Release the Windows logo key to display the front most windows in the stack. Or, click any part of any window in the stack to display that window.

Figure10r. Switching between window with Aero Flip 3D

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Flip 3D is part of the Aero desktop experience. If your computer doesn’t support Aero, you can view the open programs and windows on your computer by pressing Alt+Tab. To cycle through the open windows, you can press the Tab key, press the arrow keys, or use your mouse.

10.5.2    Arranging Windows Automatically

Now that you know how to move and resize windows, you can arrange them however you like on your desktop. You can also have Windows automatically arrange them in one of three ways:

1. Cascading
   1. Vertically stacked
   1. Side by side

Figure10s. Arrange windows in a cascade (left), vertical stack (center), or side-by-side pattern (right)

Practice 23

Procedures to Choose One of the Options

1. Open some windows on your desktop
2. Right-click an empty area of the taskbar

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1. Click Cascade windows, Show windows stacked, or Show windows side by side.

10.5.3    Arranging Windows Using SNAP

Snap is a quick (and fun) new way to resize open windows, simply by dragging them to the edges of your screen. Depending on where you drag a window, you can make it expand vertically, take up the entire screen, or appear side-by-side with another window. Snap makes reading, organizing, and comparing windows a…well, you get the picture. Snap will automatically resize your windows when you move, or snap, them to the edge of the screen. We can use Snap to arrange windows side by side, expand windows vertically, or maximize a window.

Practice 24

Arrange Windows Side By Side

1. Drag the title bar of a window to the left or right side of the screen until an outline of the expanded window appears.
   1. Release the mouse to expand the window.
   1. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with another window to arrange the windows side by side.

Practice 25

Expand a Window Vertically

1. Point to the top or bottom edge of an open window until the pointer changes into a double-headed arrow .
2. Drag the edge of the window to the top or bottom of the screen to expand the window to the entire height of the desktop. The width of the window doesn’t change. See figure 10t.

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Figure10t. Drag the top or bottom of a window to expand it vertically

Practice 26 Maximize a Window

1. Drag the title bar of the window to the top of the screen. The window’s outline expands to fill the screen.

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1. Release the window to expand it to fill the entire desktop.

10.6          Dialog Boxes

A dialog box is a special type of window that asks you a question, allows you to select options to perform a task, or provides you with information. It is a medium of communication through which the computer users communicate with computers. We will often see dialog boxes when a program or Windows needs a response from us before it can continue see figure 10u for a save dialog box.

Figure10u. Paint save dialog

Unlike regular windows, most dialog boxes can’t be maximized, minimized, or resized. They can, however, be moved.

10.7          Using Menus, Buttons, Bars, and Boxes

Menus, buttons, scroll bars, and check boxes are examples of controls that you operate with your mouse or keyboard. These controls allow you to select commands, change settings, or work

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with windows. This section describes how to recognize and use controls that you’ll encounter frequently while using Windows.

10.7.1    Using Menus

Most programs contain dozens or even hundreds of commands (actions) that you use to work the program. Many of these commands are organized under menus. Like a restaurant menu, a program menu shows you a list of choices. To keep the screen uncluttered, menus are hidden until you click their titles in the menu bar, located just underneath the title bar.

To choose one of the commands listed in a menu, click it. Sometimes a dialog box appears, in which you can select further options. If a command is unavailable and cannot be clicked, it is shown in gray.

Some menu items are not commands at all. Instead, they open other menus. See figure 10v pointing to “New” open a submenu.

Figure10v. Menu commands that open submenus

If you don’t see the command you want, try looking at another menu. Move your mouse pointer along the menu bar and its menus open automatically; you don’t need to click the menu bar again. To close a menu without selecting any commands, click the menu bar or any other part of the window.

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Recognizing menus isn’t always easy, because not all menu controls look alike or even appear on a menu bar. So how can you spot them? When you see an arrow next to a word or picture, you’re probably looking at a menu control. Here are some examples:

Figure10w. Examples of menu controls

Note:

• If a keyboard shortcut is available for a command, it is shown next to the command.
• You can operate menus using your keyboard instead of your mouse.

10.7.2    Scroll Bars

When a document, webpage, or picture exceeds the size of its window, scroll bars appear to allow you to see the information that is currently out of view. Figure 11v shows the parts of a scroll bar.

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Figure10x. Horizontal and vertical scroll bars

Practice 27

To Use s Scroll Bar:

1. Click the up or down scroll arrows to scroll the window’s contents up or down in small steps. Hold down the mouse button to scroll continuously.
   1. Click an empty area of a scroll bar above or below the scroll box to scroll up or down one page.
   1. Drag a scroll box up, down, left, or right to scroll the window in that direction.

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If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and webpages. To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away from you).

10.7.3    Using Command Buttons

A command button performs a command (makes something happen) when you click it. You’ll most often see them in dialog boxes, which are small windows that contain options for completing a task. For example, if you close a Paint picture without saving it first, you might see a dialog box as in figure 10u. Save, Don‘t save and Cancel are command buttons. Clicking Save saves the picture and any changes you’ve made, and clicking Don’t Save deletes the picture and discards any changes you’ve made. Clicking Cancel dismisses the dialog box and returns you to the program.

Pressing Enter does the same thing as clicking a command button that is selected (outlined).

Outside of dialog boxes, command buttons vary in appearance, so it’s sometimes difficult to know what a button is and what isn’t. For example, command buttons often appear as small icons (pictures) without any text or rectangular frame. The most reliable way to determine if something is a command button is to rest your pointer on it. If it “lights up” and becomes framed with a rectangle, you’ve discovered a button. Most buttons will also display some text about their function when you point to them.

If a button changes into two parts when you point to it, you’ve discovered a split button. Clicking the main part of the button performs a command, whereas clicking the arrow opens a menu with more options.

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10.7.4    Using Option Buttons

Option buttons allow you to make one choice among two or more options. They frequently appear in dialog boxes. Figure 10y shows two option buttons. The “Color” option is selected.

Figure10y. Clicking a button selects that option

To select an option, click one of the buttons. Only one option can be selected.

10.7.5    Using Check Boxes

Check boxes allow you to select one or more independent options. Unlike option buttons, which restrict you to one choice, check boxes allow you to choose multiple options at the same time. See figure 10z.

Figure10z. Shown check box

Practice 28

To use check boxes

1. Click an empty square to select or “turn on” that option. A check mark will appear in the square, indicating that the option is selected.
   1. To turn off an option, clear (remove) its check mark by clicking it.
   1. Options that currently can’t be selected or cleared are shown in gray.

10.7.6    Sliders

A slider lets you adjust a setting along a range of values. It looks like this.

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Figure10za. Slider

A slider along the bar shows the currently selected value. In the example shown above, the slider is positioned midway between Slow and Fast, indicating a medium pointer speed. To use a slider, drag the slider toward the value that you want.

10.7.7    Boxes

A text box allows you to type information, such as a search term or password. The figure 10zb shows a dialog box containing a text box. We’ve entered “bear” into the text box.

Figure10zb. Text box in a dialog box

A blinking vertical line called the cursor indicates where text that you type will appear. In the example, you can see the cursor after the

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“r” in “bear.” You can easily move the cursor by clicking the new position. For example, to add a word before “bear,” you would first move the cursor by clicking before the “b.”

If you don’t see a cursor in the text box, it means the text box isn’t ready for your input. Click the box first, and then start typing. Text boxes that require you to enter a password will usually hide your password as you type it, in case someone else is looking at your screen. See figure 10zc.

Figure10zc. Text boxes for passwords

10.7.8    Drop-Down Lists

Drop-down lists are similar to menus. Instead of clicking a command, though, you choose an option. When closed, a drop-down list shows only the currently selected option. The other available options are hidden until you click the control, as shown below in figure 10zc.

Figure 10zc. A drop-down list shown closed (left), and open (right)

10.7.9    List Boxes

A list box displays a list of options that you can choose from. Unlike a drop-down list, some or all of the options are visible without having to open the list see figure 10zc.

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Figure10zd. List box

To choose an option from the list, click it. If the option you want isn’t visible, use the scroll bar to scroll the list up or down. If the list box has a text box above it, you can type the name or value of the option instead.

10.7.10    Tabs

In some dialog boxes, options are divided into two or more tabs. Only one tab, or set of options, can be viewed at a time. See figure 10ze.

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Figure10ze.     Tabs

The currently selected tab appears in front of the other tabs. To switch to a different tab, click the tab.

10.8              Programs

Almost everything you do on your computer requires using a program. For example, if you want to draw a picture, you need to use a drawing or painting program. To write a letter, you use a word processing program. To explore the Internet, you use a program called a web browser. Thousands of programs are available for Windows.

Practice 29 Opening a Program

The Start menu is the gateway to all of the programs on your computer. To open the Start menu, click the Start button . The left pane of the Start menu contains a small list of programs, including your Internet browser, e-mail program, and recently used programs. To open a program, click it.

If you don’t see the program you want to open, but you know its name, type all or part of the name into the search box at the bottom

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of the left pane. Under Programs, click a program to open it. To browse a complete list of your programs, click the Start button, and then click All Programs.

You can also open a program by opening a file. Opening the file automatically opens the program associated with the file.

Practice 30

Creating a New Document

Many programs allow you to create, edit, save, and print documents. In general, a document is any type of file that you can edit. For example, a word processing file is a type of document, as is a spreadsheet, an e-mail message, and a presentation. However, the terms document and file are often used interchangeably; pictures, music clips, and videos that you can edit are usually called files, even though they are technically documents. Some programs, including WordPad, Notepad, and Paint, open a blank, untitled document automatically when you open the program, so that you can start working right away. You’ll see a large white area and a generic word like “Untitled” or “Document” in the program’s title bar.

If your program doesn’t open a new document automatically when it opens, you can do it yourself:

• Click the File menu in the program you are using, and then click        New.   or Click the menu button , and then click New. If you can open more than one type of document in the program, you might also need to select the type from a list.

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10.8.1    Saving a Document

As you work on a document, your additions and changes are stored in your computer’s random access memory (RAM). Storage of information in RAM is temporary; if your computer is turned off or loses power, any information in RAM is erased.

Saving a document allows you to name it and to store it permanently on your computer’s hard disk. That way, the document is preserved even when your computer is turned off, and you can open it again later.

Practice 31

To Save a Document

1. Click    the     File     menu,     and     click     Save.     Or Click the Save button .
   1. If this is the first time you are saving the document, you‘ll be asked to provide a name for it and a location on your computer to save it to.

Even if you’ve saved a document once, you need to keep saving it as you work. That’s because any changes you’ve made since you last saved the document are stored in RAM, not on the hard disk. To avoid losing work unexpectedly due to a power failure or other problem, save your document every few minutes.

Practice 32

Moving Information between Files

Most programs allow you to share text and images between them. When you copy information, it goes into a temporary storage area called the Clipboard. From there, you can paste it into a document.

Before you start moving information around, you should understand how to switch between the open windows on your desktop.

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10.8.2    Undo Your Last Action

Most programs allow you to undo (reverse) actions you take or mistakes you make. For example, if you delete a paragraph in a WordPad document accidentally, you can get it back by using the Undo command. If you draw a line in Paint that you don’t want, undo your line right away and it vanishes.

Practice 33

To Undo an Action

Click        the       Edit       menu,        and       click        Undo.       orv Click the Undo button .

10.8.3    Getting Help with a Program

Almost every program comes with its own built-in Help system for those times when you’re confused about how the program works.

To access a program’s Help system:

Practice 34

Click the Help menu and then click the first item in the list, such as “View Help,” “Help Topics,” or similar text. (The name of this item will vary.)

or

Click the Help button .

You can also access a program’s Help system by pressing F1. This function key opens Help in almost any program. In addition to program-specific help, some dialog boxes contain links to help about their specific functions. If you see a question mark inside a circle or square, or a colored and underlined text link, click it to open the Help topic. See figure 10zf.

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Figure10zf. Help links

Practice 35 Exiting a Program

To exit a program, click the Close button  in the upper-right corner of the program window. Or, click the File menu, and click Exit.

Remember to save your document before exiting a program. If you have unsaved work and try to exit the program, the program will ask you whether you want to save the document.

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10.8.4    Installing or Uninstalling Programs

You’re not limited to using the programs that come with your computer you can buy new programs on CD or DVD or download programs (either free or for a fee) from the Internet. Installing a program means adding it to your computer. After a program is installed, it appears in your Start menu in the All Programs list. Some programs might also add a shortcut to your desktop.

10.9              Files and Folders

A file is an  item that contains information for example, text  or images or music. When opened, a file can look very much like a text document or a picture that you might find on someone’s desk or in a filing cabinet. On your computer, files are represented with icons; this makes it easy to recognize a type of file by looking at its icon.

A folder is a container you can use to store files in. If you had thousands of paper files on your desk, it would be nearly impossible to find any particular file when you needed it. That’s why people often store paper files in folders inside a filing cabinet. On your computer, folders work the same way. Here are some typical folder icons figures 10zg.

Figure10zg. An empty folder (left); a folder containing files (right)

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Folders can also store other folders. A folder within a folder is usually called a subfolder. You can create any number of subfolders, and each can hold any number of files and additional subfolders.

10.9.1    Using Libraries to Access Files and Folders

When it comes to getting organized, you don’t need to start from scratch. You can use libraries, a feature new to this version of Windows, to access your files and folders, and arrange them in different ways. Here’s a list of the four default libraries and what they’re typically used for:

1. Documents library. Use this library to organize and arrange word-processing documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and other text-related files. By default, files that you move, copy, or save to the Documents library are stored in the My Documents folder.
   1. Pictures library. Use this library to organize and arrange your digital pictures, whether you get them from your camera, scanner, or in e-mail from other people.

By default, files that you move, copy, or save to the Pictures library are stored in the My Pictures folder.

1. Music library. Use this library to organize and arrange your digital music, such as songs that you rip from an audio CD or that you download from the Internet. By default, files that you move, copy, or save to the Music library are stored in the My Music folder.
   1. Videos library. Use this library to organize and arrange your videos, such as clips from your digital camera or camcorder, or video files that you download from the Internet. By default, files that you move, copy, or save to the Videos library are stored in the My Videos folder.

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Practice 36

Viewing and Arranging Files and Folders

When you open a folder or library, you can change how the files look in the window. For example, you might prefer larger (or smaller) icons or a view that lets you see different kinds of information about each file. To make these kinds of changes, use the Views button in the toolbar.

Each time you click the left side of the Views button, it changes the way your files and folders are displayed by cycling through five different views: Large Icons, List, a view called Details that shows several columns of information about the file, a smaller icon view called Tiles, and a view called Content that shows some of the content from within the file.

If you click the arrow on the right side of the Views button, you have more choices. Move the slider up or down to fine-tune the size of the file and folder icons. You can see the icons change size as you move the slider. See figure 10zh.

Figure10zh.     The Views options

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In libraries, you can go a step further by arranging your files in different ways. For example, assuming you want to arrange the files in your Music library by genre.

1. Click the Start button , and then click Music.
   1. In the library pane (above the file list), click the menu next to Arrange by, and then click Genre.

Practice 37 Finding Files

Depending on how many files you have and how they are organized, finding a file might mean browsing through hundreds of files and subfolders not an easy task. To save time and effort, use the search box to find your file.

The search box is located at the top of every window and also at the bottom edge of start button. To find a file, open the folder or library that makes the most sense as a starting point for your search, click the search box, and start typing. The search box filters the current view based on the text that you type. Files are displayed as search results if your search term matches the file’s name, tags or other properties, or even the text inside a text document.

If you’re searching for a file based on a property (such as the file’s type), you can narrow the search before you start typing by clicking the search box, and then clicking one of the properties just below the search box. This adds a search filter (such as “type”) to your search text, which will give you more accurate results.

If you aren’t seeing the file you’re looking for, you can change the entire scope of a search by clicking one of the options at the bottom of the search results. For example, if you search for a file in the Documents library but you can’t find it, you can click Libraries to expand the search to the rest of your libraries.

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Practice 38 Copying and Moving Files and Folders

Occasionally, you might want to change where files are stored on your computer. You might want to move files to a different folder, for example, or copy them to removable media (such as CDs or memory cards) to share with another person.

Most people copy and move files using a method called drag and drop. Start by opening the folder that contains the file or folder you want to move. Then, open the folder where you want to move it to in a different window. Position the windows side by side on the desktop so that you can see the contents of both.

Next, drag the file or folder from the first folder to the second folder. See figure 10zi.

Figure10zi. To copy or move a file, by drag it from one window to another

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When using the drag-and-drop method, you might notice that sometimes the file or folder is copied, and at other times it’s moved. If you’re dragging an item between two folders that are stored on the same hard disk, then the item is moved so that two copies of the same file or folder aren’t created in the same location. If you drag the item to a folder that’s in a different location (such as a network location) or to removable media like a CD, then the item is copied.

Practice 39

Creating and Deleting Files

The most common way to create new files is by using a program. For example, you can create a text document in a word-processing program or a movie file in a video-editing program. Some programs create a file as soon as you open them. When you open WordPad, for example, it starts with a blank page. This represents an empty (and unsaved) file. Start typing, and when you are ready to save your work, click the Save button . In the dialog box that appears, type a file name that will help you find the file again in the future, and then click Save.

By default, most programs save files in common folders like My Documents and My Pictures, which makes it easy to find the files again next time.

When you no longer need a file, you can remove it from your computer to save space and to keep your computer from getting cluttered with unwanted files.

To delete a file, open the folder or library that contains the file, and then select the file. Press Delete on your keyboard and then, in the Delete File dialog box, click Yes.

When you delete a file, it’s temporarily stored in the Recycle Bin. Think of the Recycle Bin as a safety net that allows you to recover files or folders that you might have accidentally deleted. Occasionally, you should empty the Recycle Bin to reclaim all of the hard disk space being used by your unwanted files.

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Practice 40

Opening an Existing File

To open a file, double click it. The file will usually open in the program that you used to create or change it. For example, a text file will open in your word-processing program.

That’s not always the case, though. Double-clicking a picture file, for example, will usually open a picture viewer. To change the picture, you need to use a different program. Right-click the file, clicks Open with, and then clicks the name of the program that you want to use.

10.10          Printing

We can print almost anything with Windows: documents, pictures, webpages, or e-mail.

10.10.1            What’s DPI?

DPI, or dots per inch, is a measure of a printer’s resolution. DPI determines how crisp and detailed your document or picture will appear. It’s an important consideration when buying a new printer.

Practice 41

Connecting Your Printer

Printers are designed to connect to a computer running Windows in different ways, depending on the model and whether you’re using it at home or work. Here are the most common connections you’ll encounter:

Wired printers

These devices connect using a cable and a port on the computer. Most home printers have a universal serial bus (USB) connector, although some older models might connect to the parallel or serial ports. On a typical PC, the parallel port is often marked “LPT1” or with a tiny printer-shaped icon.

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When you plug in a USB printer, Windows automatically attempts to identify it and install the software (called a driver) needed to make it work with your PC.

Windows is designed to automatically recognize hundreds of printers. However, you should always consult the instructions that came with your printer; with some printers, you’ll need to install the manufacturer’s software before you plug it in.

If your printer is older or doesn’t use USB, you might have to install it manually.

Wireless Printers

A wireless printer connects to a computer using radio waves by using either Bluetooth or Wi-Fi technology.

To connect a Bluetooth printer, you might need to need to add a Bluetooth adapter to your computer. Most Bluetooth adapters plug into a USB port.

When you plug in the adapter and turn on the Bluetooth printer, Windows will try to install it automatically, or prompt you to install it. If Windows can’t detect the printer, you can add it manually.

A Wi-Fi printer typically connects directly to a wireless network as a stand-alone device.

Local Vs. Network Printers

A printer that connects directly to a PC is called a local printer. One that connects directly to a network as a stand-alone device is called, perhaps not surprisingly, a network printer. Network printers are most often found at the office although that’s quickly changing. A growing number of printer companies now make models with networking capability for the home. These printers typically connect to a network with an Ethernet cable or wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.

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Practice 42

Printing in Windows

Windows offers multiple ways to print. The method you choose depends on what you’re trying to print. Here’s a list of common printing tasks.

1. Print a document or e-mail.
   1. Print your photos.
   1. Print the computer screen.

Choosing Print Options

Double-sided or single-sided. Monochrome or color. Landscape or portrait orientation. These are just some of the choices you’ll have to make when you print. Most options are located in the Print dialog box, which you can access from the File menu in most programs. See figure 10zj.

Figure10zj. The Print dialog box in MS Word 2010

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What options you have available and how you select them in Windows depend on the printer model and program you’re using. For specifics, check the documentation that came with your printer or software application. (To access some options, you might need to click a “Preferences,” “Properties,” or “Advanced Options” link or button within the Print dialog box.)

Here are the most common print options you’ll encounter and what they mean:

1. Printer selection. The list of available printers. Sometimes you can also choose to send documents as a fax, or save them as an XPS document.
2. Page range. Use commas or hyphens to select specific pages or a range of pages. For example, typing 1, 4, 20-23 prints pages 1, 4, 20, 21, 22, and 23.

The Selection option prints only the selected text or graphics in a document. Current Page prints only the currently displayed page.

1. Number of copies. Print more than one copy of a document, picture, or file. Select the Collate check box to print a document in its entirety before moving to the next copy.
2. Page orientation. Also called page layout. Choose between a tall page (Portrait) or wide page (Landscape).
3. Paper size. Select different size paper.
4. Output or paper source. Also called output destination or paper tray. Choose a paper tray to use—handy especially if you load each tray with different sizes of paper.
5. Double-sided printing. Also called duplex or two-sided printing. Choose this to print on both sides of a sheet.
6. Print color. Choose between black-and-white and color prints.

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Managing Documents Waiting to be printed

When you print something, it goes to the print queue, where you can view, pause, or cancel printing, and carry out other management tasks. The print queue shows you what’s printing or waiting to print. It also displays handy information such as print status, who’s printing what, and how many pages remain.

.

Figure 10zk.The print queue

Practice 42

Solving Printing Problems

As with any technology, sometimes printers don’t always do what you expect. If your model doesn’t work when you plug it into your PC, or your printed pages start to look faded or funny, you’ll have to figure out what’s wrong.

Solving the problem might be as simple as replacing the toner cartridge. Other times, you might have to download and install a new driver. Either way, the best source for assistance is the manual that came with your printer or the manufacturer’s website.

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10.11          Using Email

E-mail (short for electronic mail) is a fast and convenient way to communicate with others. You can use e-mail to:

1. Send and receive messages. You can send an e-mail message to any person with an e-mail address. The message arrives in the recipient’s e-mail inbox within seconds or minutes— despite whether he or she is your next-door neighbor or lives halfway around the world. You can receive messages from anyone who knows your e-mail address, and then read and reply to those messages.
2. Send and receive files. In addition to typical text-based e- mail messages, you can send almost any type of file in an e-mail message, including documents, pictures, and music. A file sent in an e-mail message is called an attachment.
3. Send messages to groups of people. You can send an e-mail message to many people simultaneously. Recipients can reply to the whole group, allowing for group discussions.
4. Forward messages. When you receive an e-mail message, you can forward it to others without retyping it.

10.11.1            What Do I Need Before I can Use E-Mail

To use e-mail, you need three things:

1. An Internet connection. To connect your computer to the Internet, you must first sign up with an Internet service provider (ISP). An ISP provides you with access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. You also need a modem.
   1. An e-mail program or web-based e-mail service. You can download or purchase e-mail programs from Microsoft or another provider. E-mail programs often have more features and are faster to search than most web-based e-mail services. Before you set up an e-mail program, you’ll need to get some information from your ISP: usually your e-mail address,

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password, the names of your incoming and outgoing e-mail servers, and certain other details.

If you don’t want to download or purchase an e-mail program, you can instead sign up with a free web-based e-mail service, such as Gmail, Windows Live Hotmail, or Yahoo! Mail. These services allow you to check your e-mail with a web browser from any computer connected to the Internet.

1. An e-mail address. You get an e-mail address from your ISP or web-based e-mail service when you sign up. An e-mail address consists of a user name (a nickname you choose, not necessarily your real name), the @ sign, and the name of your ISP or web-based e-mail provider—for example, asafe2012@gmail.com

Practice 43

Creating and Sending E-Mail Messages

Figure 10zj shows how to fill the message window in most e-mail programs. These steps may vary, depending on what e-mail program or web-based service you are using:

1. In the To box, type the e-mail address of at least one recipient. If you’re sending the message to multiple recipients, type a semicolon (;) between e-mail addresses. In the Cc box, you can type the e-mail addresses of any secondary recipients
2. In the Subject box, type a title for your message.
3. In the large blank area, type your message.

To attach a file to the message, click the Attach File button on the toolbar (located just below the menu bar). Locate the file, select it, and then click Open. The file now appears in the Attach box in the message header.

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Figure10zl. Sample e-mail message

To change the style, font, size, or color of the text, select the text, and then click one of the buttons or menu items that allow you to change the text formatting.

Practice 44

Reading and Replying E-Mail Messages

Most e-mail programs and web-based e-mail services have an inbox where you can read messages you have received. You might have to click a button labeled Send/Receive, or something similar, to receive new messages. To see a list of e-mail messages you’ve received, click Inbox in the Folders list of your e-mail program. Your e-mail messages should appear in the message list. The list typically shows who sent the mail, the subject, and when it was received.

To read a message, click it in the message list. The contents of the message might appear below the message list in the preview pane. If so, double-click it in the message list to read the message in a separate window. See figure 11zk. To reply to a message, click the Reply button.

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Figure10zm. Click the inbox to see your e-mail messages

10.11.2            E-mail etiquette

Like telephone and face-to-face conversations, e-mail communication has certain implied rules of behavior. These rules are referred to as e-mail etiquette or netiquette (a combination of the terms Internet and etiquette). For effective communication, follow these guidelines:

1. Be careful with humor and emotion. E-mail doesn’t convey emotion well, so the recipient might not understand your intended tone. Sarcastic humor is particularly risky because the recipient might interpret it literally and take offense. To convey emotion, consider using emoticons (see “Using emoticons” in this article below).

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1. Think before you send. Writing and sending an e-mail message is fast and easy—sometimes too easy. Make sure you’ve thought out your message first, and avoid writing when you’re angry.
   1. Use a clear and concise subject line. Summarize the contents of the message in a few words. People who receive a large amount of e-mail can use the subject to prioritize the message.
   1. Keep messages short. Although an e-mail message can be of any length, e-mail is designed for quick communication. Many people don’t have the time or patience to read more than a few paragraphs.
   1. Avoid using ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. Many people perceive sentences written in all uppercase letters as yelling and might find it annoying or offensive.
   1. Be careful with sensitive or confidential information. Any recipient can forward your message to others—either intentionally or accidentally.

Practice 45 Using emoticons

It’s often difficult to convey emotion, intent, or tone through text alone, early Internet users invented emoticons (a combination of the terms emotion and icons) sequences of keyboard characters that symbolize facial expressions. For example, 🙂 looks like a smiling face when you look at it sideways. Below are some examples of emoticons.

Emoticon Meaning

🙂 or 🙂     Smiling, happy, or joking

🙁 or 🙁     Frowning or unhappy

😉             Winking

😐              Indifferent or ambivalent

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Emoticon Meaning

😮            Surprised or concerned

😡            Not saying anything

:-p            Sticking out your tongue (usually in fun)

😀           Laughing

10.11.3            Dealing with Junk E-Mail

We can receive unsolicited advertisements, flyers, and catalogs in your regular mail, you’ll probably receive junk e-mail (often called spam) in your inbox. Junk e-mail might include advertisements, fraudulent schemes, pornography, or legitimate offers. Because it’s very inexpensive for marketers to send junk e-mail, it’s not uncommon for people to receive a large amount of it.

Many e-mail programs and web-based e-mail services include a junk filter, also called a spam filter. These analyze the content of messages sent to you and move suspicious messages to a special junk e-mail folder, where you can view or delete them at any time. If a junk e-mail message slips past the filter into your inbox, many e-mail programs allow you to specify that any future messages from that sender be automatically moved to the junk e-mail folder.

Prevention of Junk E-Mail:

1. Use caution in giving out your e-mail address. Avoid publishing your real e-mail address in newsgroups, on websites, or in other public areas of the Internet.
   1. Before you give your e-mail address to a website, check the site’s privacy statement to be sure it doesn’t permit the disclosure of your e-mail address to other companies.
   1. Never reply to a junk e-mail message. The sender will know that your e-mail address is valid and might sell it to other companies. You’re then likely to receive even more junk e-mail.

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10.12      Understanding Security and Safer Computing

If you connect to the Internet, allow other people to use your computer, or share files with others, you should take steps to protect your computer from harm. Because there are computer criminals (sometimes called hackers) who attack other people’s computers. These people can attack directly, by breaking into your computer through the Internet and stealing your personal information, or indirectly, by creating malicious software to harm your computer.

Fortunately, you can help protect yourself by taking a few simple precautions.

Practice 46

Protect Computer against Security Threat

These are ways to help protect your computer against potential security threats:

1. Firewall. A firewall can help protect your computer by preventing hackers or malicious software from gaining access to it.
2. Virus protection. Antivirus software can help protect your computer against viruses, worms, and other security threats.
3. Spyware and other malware protection. Antispyware software can help protect your computer from spyware and other potentially unwanted software.
4. Windows Update. Windows can routinely check for updates for your computer and install them automatically.
5. Install latest version of web browser
6. Turn on your browser security features
7. Using standard users account

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Use a firewall

A firewall is software or hardware that checks information coming from the Internet or a network and then either turns it away or allows it to pass through to your computer, depending on your firewall settings. In this way, a firewall can help prevent hackers and malicious software from gaining access to your computer. Windows Firewall is built into Windows and is turned on automatically. Figure 10zl shows how firewall work.

Figure 11mn .How a firewall works

If you run a program such as an instant messaging program or a multiplayer network game that needs to receive information from the Internet or a network, the firewall asks if you want to block or unblock (allow) the connection. If you choose to unblock the connection, Windows Firewall creates an exception so that the firewall won’t bother you when that program needs to receive information in the future.

Use Virus Protection

Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses are programs created by hackers that use the Internet to infect vulnerable computers. Viruses and Page 199 of 288 Information Communication Technology (ICT)

worms can replicate themselves from computer to computer, while Trojan horses enter a computer by hiding inside an apparently legitimate program, such as a screen saver. Destructive viruses, worms, and Trojan horses can erase information from your hard disk or completely disable your computer. Others don’t cause direct damage, but worsen your computer’s performance and stability.

Antivirus programs scan e-mail and other files on your computer for viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. If one is found, the antivirus program either quarantines (isolates) it or deletes it entirely before it damages your computer and files.

Windows does not have a built-in antivirus program, but your computer manufacturer might have installed one. If not, there are many antivirus programs available. Microsoft offers Microsoft Security Essentials, a free antivirus program you can download from the Microsoft Security Essentials website. You can also go to the Windows 7 security software provider‘s website to find a third-party antivirus program.

Because new viruses are identified every day, it’s important to use an antivirus program with an automatic update capability. When the program is updated, it adds new viruses to its list of viruses to check for, helping to protect your computer from new attacks. If the list of viruses is out of date, your computer is vulnerable to new threats. Updates usually require an annual subscription fee. Keep the subscription current to receive regular updates.

Use Spyware Protection

Spyware is software that can display advertisements, collect information about you, or change settings on your computer, generally without appropriately obtaining your consent. For example, spyware can install unwanted toolbars, links, or favorites in your web browser, change your default home page, or display pop-up ads frequently. Some spyware displays no symptoms that you can detect, but it secretly collects sensitive information, such as

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the websites you visit or the text you type. Most spyware is installed through free software that you download, but in some cases simply visiting a website results in a spyware infection.

To help protect your computer from spyware, use an antispyware program. This version of Windows has a built-in antispyware program called Windows Defender, which is turned on by default. Windows Defender alerts you when spyware tries to install itself on your computer. It also can scan your computer for existing spyware and then remove it.

Because new spyware appears every day, Windows Defender must be regularly updated to detect and guard against the latest spyware threats. Windows Defender is updated as needed whenever you update Windows. For the highest level of protection, set Windows to install updates automatically.

Update Windows Automatically

Microsoft regularly offers important updates to Windows that can help protect your computer against new viruses and other security threats. To ensure that you receive these updates as quickly as possible, turn on automatic updating. That way, you don’t have to worry that critical fixes for Windows might be missing from your computer.

Updates are downloaded behind the scenes when you’re connected to the Internet. The updates are installed at 3:00 A.M. unless you specify a different time. If you turn off your computer before then, you can install updates before shutting down. Otherwise, Windows will install them the next time you start your computer.

Turn on Automatic Updating

1. Open Windows Update by clicking the Start button . In the search box, type Update, and then, in the list of results, click Windows Update.
2. Click Change settings.

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1. Make sure Install updates automatically (recommended) is selected.

Windows will install important updates for your computer as they become available. Important updates provide significant benefits, such as improved security and reliability.

1. Under Recommended updates, make sure the Give me recommended updates the same way I receive important updates check box is selected, and then click OK. Recommended updates can address non-critical problems and help enhance your computing experience.  If you’re prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.

Install the Latest Version of Web Browser and Keep It Up To Date

Using the latest version of your web browser and keeping your browser up to date are two of the best ways to prevent trouble online. In most cases, the latest version of a web browser contains security fixes and new features that can help protect your computer and your privacy while you’re online.

Also, many web browsers offer security updates periodically. So be sure to install updates for your browser whenever they’re available. If      you  have        Internet Explorer,      you      can      get    updates                              for it automatically using Windows Update. If your computer isn’t set up to automatically receive updates, you can manually request these updates by using Internet Explorer. Click the Safety button, and then click Windows Update.

Turn On Your Browser’s Security Features

Many web browsers have security features that help you browse the web safely. So it’s a good idea to find out what security features your browser has and make sure they’re enabled.

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If you have Internet Explorer, here are some of the security features that are available:

1. Smart Screen Filter, which can help protect you from online phishing attacks, fraud, and spoofed or malicious websites.
2. Domain highlighting, which lets you more easily see the real web address on websites you visit. This helps you avoid deceptive or phishing websites that use misleading web addresses to trick you. The true domain you’re visiting is highlighted in the address bar.
3. Manage Add-ons, which lets you disable or allow web browser add-ons and delete unwanted ActiveX controls.
4. Cross site scripting (XSS) filter, which can help prevent attacks from phishing and fraudulent websites that might attempt to steal your personal and financial information?
5. A 128-bit secure (SSL) connection for using secure websites. This helps Internet Explorer create an encrypted connection with websites run by banks, online stores, medical sites, or other organizations that handle sensitive customer information.

Use a Standard User Account

When you log on to your computer, Windows grants you a certain level of rights and privileges depending on what kind of user account you have. There are three different types of user accounts:

1. Standard
2. Administrator
3. Guest

Although an administrator account provides complete control over a computer, using a standard account can help make your computer more secure. That way, if other people (or hackers) gain access to your computer while you’re logged on, they can’t tamper with the

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computer’s security settings or change other user accounts. You can check your account type after you log on by doing the following:

10.12.1            Safely Using Of E-Mail and the Web

1. Use caution when opening e-mail attachments. E-mail attachments (files attached to e-mail messages) are a primary source of virus infection. Never open an attachment from someone you don’t know. If you know the sender but weren’t expecting an attachment, verify that the sender actually sent the attachment before you open it.
   1. Guard your personal information carefully. If a website asks for a credit card number, bank information, or other personal information, make sure you trust the website and verify that its transaction system is secure.
   1. Be careful when clicking hyperlinks in e-mail messages. Hyperlinks (links that open websites when you click them) are often used as part of phishing and spyware scams, but they can also transmit viruses. Only click links in e-mail messages that you trust.
   1. Only install add-ons from websites that you trust. Web browser add-ons allow webpages to display things like toolbars, stock tickers, video, and animation. However, add- ons can also install spyware or other malicious software. If a website asks you to install an add-on, make sure that you trust it before doing so.

Data Communication & Computer Network | ICT for APTET 2022

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

Description Of Data Communication and Transmission ata Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver. The source transmits the data and the receiver receives it. The actual generation of

the information is not part of Data Communications nor is the resulting        action  of         the                 information at     the                 receiver. Data Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer process. In Local Area Networks, we are interested in “connectivity”, connecting computers together to share resources. Even though the computers can have different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations, they still can communicate to one another and share resources. The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share resources. The rules and regulations are called protocols and standards in Data Communications. During the process of data transmission, the data or information flow in any of the following 3 major ways;

Simplex Transmission

In this case data flows in only one direction on the data communication line (medium). Examples are Radio and Television broadcasts. They go from the TV station to your home television.

Figure 9a.        Simplex Transmision

Half Duplex Transmission

Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time on the data communication line. Example. Conversation on walkie-talkies is a half-duplex data flow. Each person takes turns talking. If both talk at once – nothing occurs. Bi-directional but only 1 direction @ a time.

Figure 9b. Half Duplex Transmission

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Full Duplex Transmission

Full-Duplex: data flows in both directions simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow data in both directions. Bi-directional both directions simultaneously.

Figure 9c. Full Duplex Transmission

• Description Of Computer Network

A computer network is a telecommunications network that connects a collection of computers to allow communication and data exchange between systems, software applications, and users. The computers that are involved in the network that originate, route and terminate the data are called nodes. The interconnection of computers is accomplished with a combination of cable or wireless media and networking hardware.

Two devices are said to be networked when a process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device. Networks may be classified by various characteristics, such as the media used to transmit signals, the communications protocols used to organize network traffic, network scale, network topology and organizational scope. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

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Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network. Well-known communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is widely used for local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), which defines a set of protocols for communication between multiple networks, for host-to-host data transfer, and for application-specific data transmission formats. Protocols provide the basis for network programming. Computer networks are created to support many different sorts of services such as World Wide Web, file servers, email, instant messaging and printing.

9.3              Computer Network Topology

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. This article introduces the standard topologies of networking. Think of a topology as a network’s virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

9.3.1        Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don’t require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (“ThinNet”) and 10Base-5 (“ThickNet”) both were popular Ethernet

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cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Figure 9d. Bus topology

9.3.2        Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either “clockwise” or “counterclockwise”). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

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Figure 9e. Ring topology

9.3.3        Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a “hub node” that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer’s network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.

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Figure 9f. Star topology

9.3.4        Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Figure 9g. Tree topology

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9.3.5        Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Figure 9h. Mesh topology

9.4              Computer Network Protocol

A communication protocol is a description of the rules that communication devices must follow to communicate with each other. In computer networking we have different types of protocols. The protocols can be divided into two major categories: TCP/IP and Other Protocols.

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TCP/IP

TCP/IP is the communication protocol for communication between computers on the Internet. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the Internet, and how data should be transmitted between them. TCP/IP is the major protocol in communication network that communication can do without. Inside the TCP/IP standard there are several protocols for handling data communication these are:

• TCP    (Transmission     Control    Protocol)    communication between applications
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) simple communication between applications
• IP (Internet Protocol) communication between computers
• ICMP (Internet  Control Message Protocol) for errors and statistics
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for dynamic addressing

TCP Uses a Fixed Connection

TCP takes care of the communication between your application software (i.e. your browser) and your network software. TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP packets before they are sent, and for assembling the packets when they arrive. TCP is for communication between applications.

If one application wants to communicate with another via TCP, it sends a communication request. This request must be sent to an exact address. After a “handshake” between the two applications, TCP will set up a “full-duplex” communication between the two applications. The “full-duplex” communication will occupy the communication line between the two computers until it is closed by one of the two applications.

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Internet Protocol

The Network Layer protocol for TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP). It uses IP addresses and the subnet mask to determine whether the datagram is on the local or a remote network. If it is on the remote network, the datagram is forwarded to the default gateway which is a router that links to another network. IP keeps track of the number of transverses through each router that the datagram goes through to reach its destination. Each transvers is called a hop. If the hop count exceeds 255 hops, the datagram is removed and the destination considered unreachable. IP’s name for the hop count is called Time to Live (TTL). IP is for communication between computers. IP is a “connection-less” communication protocol. IP does not occupy the communication line between two computers. IP reduces the need for network lines. Each line can be used for communication between many different computers at the same time. With IP, messages (or other data) are broken up into small independent “packets” and sent between computers via the Internet. IP is responsible for “routing” each packet to the correct destination.

9.5             Description of Internet

Internet the international networks, is a worldwide “network of networks” that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government computer networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. Major advantages of internet in business organization is electronic communication in business which includes, Electronic mail (e-mail), Electronic Commerce (e- commerce), Electronic Business (e-business), Business-to-Employee (B2E), Business-to-Business (B2B), Business-to-Government (B2G).

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Advantages of Internet

1. Global Audience: Content published on the World Wide Web is immediately available to a global audience of users. This makes the World Wide Web a very cost-effective medium to publish information. Reaching more than 190 countries

• Operates 24 hours, 7 days a week: You don’t need to wait until resources are available to conduct business. From a consumer’s perspective as well as a provider’s business can be consummated at any time. The fact that the Internet is operational at all times makes it the most efficient business machine to date.

• Relatively Inexpensive: It is relatively inexpensive to publish information on the Internet. At a fraction of the cost to publish information by traditional methods, various organizations and individuals can now distribute information to millions of users. It costs only a few thousand dollars to establish an Internet presence and publish content on the Internet.

• Immediate Distribution of Information: When information is added to a Web site, it’s immediately available for browsing by millions of Internet users. The World Wide Web is an ideal medium of information distribution because it takes away the time lag associated with publishing content and actually making it available to users

• Easy Integration with Internal Information Systems: Internet information systems deployed on the Internet can be easily integrated with internal information systems managed

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with office productivity applications such as Microsoft Office.

• Multimedia: The capability to incorporate multimedia into Web pages is a major advantage of using World Wide Web to publish information. For example, many Web sites use sounds and video clips to make the content easier and more interesting to browse.

• Formatting Capabilities: Content published on the World Wide Web can be richly formatted by using various HTML tags and graphic formats. The capability to do this is a major reason for the success of the World Wide Web. In addition to using HTML tags and various multimedia formats in Web pages, various interactive controls can also be added to a web page. This capability allows Web site content developers to create “active” Web sites. For example, before a user sends some information to a Web server for processing, a VBScript or JavaScript subroutine can be used to verify information typed in by the user. Various formatting capabilities, along with technologies such as Java and VBScript, make the World Wide Web a richly interactive medium that you can use to distribute information to millions of users.

9.6              Electronic Mail In Business Organization

Electronic mail, popular known as e-mail has become sin-qua-non in business communication. is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today’s email systems are based on a store-and-forward model. Email

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servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly, typically to an email server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages. Some it advantages and disadvantages are discussed below.

Advantages of Emails

1. Emails are easy to use. You can organize your daily correspondence, send and receive electronic messages and save them on computers.
2. Emails are fast. They are delivered at once around the world. No other form of written communication is as fast as an email.
3. The language used in emails is simple and informal.
4. When you reply to an email you can attach the original message so that when you answer the recipient knows what you are talking about. This is important if you get hundreds of emails a day.
5. It is possible to send automated emails with a certain text. In such a way it is possible to tell the sender that you are on vacation. These emails are called auto responders.
6. Emails do not use paper. They are environment friendly and save a lot of trees from being cut down.
7. Emails allow audio and visual data to be transmitted.
8. Products can be advertised with emails. Companies can reach a lot of people and inform them in a short time.

Disadvantages of Emails

1. Emails may carry viruses. These are small programs that harm your computer system. They can read out your email address book and send themselves to a number of people around the world.

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1. Many people send unwanted emails to others. These are called spam mails. It takes a lot of time to filter out the unwanted emails from those that are really important.
2. Emails cannot really be used for official business documents. They may be lost and you cannot sign them.
3. Your mailbox may get flooded with emails after a certain time so you have to empty it from time to time.

Computer Data Management | ICT for APTET 2022

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

8.1     Description Of Data Data  is/are  collection  of  raw  fact(s)  about  people,  objects,events and concepts. Data can be used either in the singular or    plural     sense.    Information    is    the    data    that    is analyzed/processed in a meaningful manner, for decision making. That is, we obtain information when a set of data undergoes processing. The terms Data, Information and Knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the level of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is the highest level among all three.

Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly random and useless until it is organized. E.g. each student’s test score is one piece of data.

Data is an abstract concept that can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Data in themselves are fairly useless. But when these data are interpreted and processed to determine its true meaning, they become useful and can be called Information. Data is/are the facts of the World. For example, take yourself. You may be 6ft tall, have black hair and yellow eyes. All of this is ―data‖. You have black hair whether this is written down somewhere or not.

Data can be thought of as a description of the World. We can perceive this data with our senses, and then the brain can process this. Human beings have used data as long as we‘ve existed to form knowledge of the world. Until we started using information, all we could use was data directly. If you wanted to know how tall I was, you would have to come and look at me. Our knowledge was limited by our direct experiences. Information allows us to expand our knowledge beyond the range of our senses.

We can capture data in information, and then move it about so that other people can access it at different times. Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant information is vital for effective performance of access it at different times. Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant information is vital for effective performance of managerial functions such as planning, organizing, leading, and control.

The diagram could be explained further as follows;

1. Data à processing à Information
   1. Information à intelligence à Knowledge
   1. Knowledge à experience à Wisdom

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Attributes of Data/Information

1. Usability Relevant:
   • Relevance is yet another key attribute of management information. Information is said to be relevant if it answers specifically for the recipient what, why, where, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers, which are useful, and the information helps them make decisions.
   • Simple: good information should not be too voluminous; it should contain only the relevant facts, without leaving out any necessary details.Flexible: Data should able to adapt to new situation: able to change or be changed according to circumstances.Economical/cost-effective: Cost-effective: the value to be derived from the use of good information should surpass the cost of obtaining such information.
   • Exception based: Top managers need only exception reports regarding the performance of the organization. Exception reporting principle states that only those items of information, which will be of particular interest to a manager, are reported. This approach results in saving precious time of the top management and enables the managers to devote more time in pursuit of alternatives for the growth of the organization.
   • Explicitness: A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the recipient for decision-making. Thus the reports should be such that a manager does not waste any time on the processing of the report, rather he should be able to extract the required information directly.

2.            Quality

1. Accurate: Accuracy is another key-attribute of management information. It means that information is free from mistakes and errors, is clear and accurately reflects the meaning of data on which it is based. It conveys an accurate picture to the recipient, who may require a presentation in graphical form rather than tabular form.

1. Verifiable: There must be means to check whether the data is true either by examination, investigation, or comparison.
   1. Complete: The information, which is provided to a manager, must be complete and should meet all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove costly to the organization.
   1. Adequate: Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity. MIS must provide reports containing information, which is required in deciding processes of decision-making.
   1. Reliable: content of good information should be such that the user can rely upon. Relevance: good information should be relevant to the subject it is required for.

3.      Delivery

1. Timely: Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed time frame. Timeliness refers to the currency of the information presented to the users. Currency of data or information is the time gap between the occurrences of an event in the field until its presentation to the user (decision maker). Timely information can ensure correct executive action at an early stage. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include current information.
2. Accessible: Data must be easily reached i.e. easy to enter or reach physically, easily understood without specialist knowledge, and easily available to be obtained, used, or experienced without difficulty.

8.2    Methods Of Data Collection/Gathering Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data – for example as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, to pass the information on to others. Some methods of data gathering are:.

Interview

Questionnaire

Observation of the system in operation

Measuring,

User workgroup

Background research

Special purpose survey. Etc

8.3    Methods Of Data Validation In computer science, data validation is the process of ensuring that a program operates on clean, correct and useful data. It uses routines, often called “validation rules” or “check routines”, that check for correctness, meaningfulness, and security of data that are input to the system. Data validation checks that data are valid, sensible, reasonable, and secure before they are processed.   Validation methods: There are several means by which data can be validated; the most popular validation methods are discussed as follows:

1. Format or picture check: Checks that the data is in a specified format (template), e.g., dates have to be in the format DD/MM/YYYY.
2. Data type checks: Checks the data type of the input and give an error message if the input data does not match with the chosen data type, e.g., In an input box accepting numeric data, if the letter ‘O’ was typed instead of the number zero, an error message would appear.
3. Range check: Checks that the data lie within a specified range of values, e.g., the month of a person’s date of birth should lie between 1 and 12.
4. Limit check: Unlike range checks, data is checked for one limit only, upper OR lower, e.g., data should not be greater than 2 (>2). Presence check: Checks that important data are actually present and have not been missed out, e.g., customers may be required to have their telephone numbers listed.
5. Check digits: Used for numerical data. An extra digit is added to a number which is calculated from the digits. The computer checks this calculation when data are entered, e.g., The ISBN for a book. The last digit is a check digit calculated using a modulus 11 method.
6. Batch totals: Checks for missing records. Numerical fields may be added together for all records in a batch. The batch total is entered and the computer checks that the total is correct, e.g., add the ‘Total Cost’ field of a number of transactions together.

• Methods Of Data Storage

The methods of data storage are discussed based on the media usage as follows:

1. Magnetic: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers.
2. Optical: Optical storage, the typical Optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non- volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media),formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use: CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
3. Magneto-optical disc storage: Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
4. Paper: Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.
5. Optical tape: This is a medium for optical storage generally consisting of a long and narrow strip of plastic onto which patterns can be written and from which the patterns can be read back. It shares some technologies with cinema film stock and optical discs, but is compatible with neither. The motivation behind developing this technology was the possibility of far greater storage capacities than either magnetic tape or optical discs.

8.5     Data Protection Against Viruses & Attacks

Data protection against viruses and attack is very important in the computer environment. Means of preventing data against Virus & attacks are:

1. Installation of anti-Virus software on a computer system
   1. Running of secure operating system
   1. Scanning of system regularly for virus
   1. Avoid programs from unknown source
   1. Backup data regularly
   1. Limit the sharing of data storage devices such as: flash drive, CDs, external hard drive etc
   1. Restricted access
   1. Put computer in a save location
   1. Prevent computer against power fluctuation and surge
   1. Segregation of duties
   1. Hire carefully
   1. Frequent audits
   1. Monitoring transaction
   1. Encryption

Data Processing Techniques | ICT For AP TET 2022

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

7.1              D Definition of Data Processing

Data processing is be defined as the methods and procedures of converting data into information. That is, the manipulation of data, its retention and subsequent retrieval.

Data processing is the activities involved in the transformation of data into information.

• Methods of Data Processing

Various methods of data processing are discussed below:

Manual method: This involves the use of pen, pencil, paper, desk calculator/adding machine and human brain. This mode of data processing is suitable in a business environment where volume of data to be processed is small and delivery time is not critical.

Mechanical (or electro-mechanical) method: This involves the use involves the use of machines that are activated by an operator

e.g. punch cards equipment, Abacus, accounting machine etc. This method is faster than the manual method of processing data. The rate of error is less than the error rate in manual mode.

 Advantages                                      Disadvantages       

Electronic Data Processing Method: This involves the use of computer to process data. EDP has the highest processing speed among all the three modes of data processing. Input devices are used to feed data into the computer; microprocessors are used to process the data and output devices are used to pass the result of processing (i.e. output or information) to the user.

Advantages                                             

1. It produces accurate results.
2. It is very fast.
3. It improves efficiency.
4. It handles complex computation.
5. It has large storage facility.
6. Handles large volume of data in short time.

   Disadvantages

1. High     initial     set-up cost.
2. Requires            regular power supply.
3. Required            skilled personnel.
4. Data is susceptible to virus attack.
5. Cost of maintenance may be high.

• Data Processing Stages

Stages of data processing include: origination, input, processing, storage, output and distribution. The data processing cycle is depicted in the following diagram.

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Figure 7a.      Data Processing stages

1. Origination: This is the collection of original (primary) data. It is possible to collect data and store it away in a secondary storage medium pending the time the data would be required for processing.
2. Input: This means feeding the data into the computer. Data is prepared in a convenient/suitable form for processing. The form of input device used depends on the data processing method. e.g. punch cards are used in electromechanical data processing while magnetic tape, disk, keyboard (terminal) are used in electronic data processing.
3. Processing: This is a planned series of actions and operations performed on data to convert the data to a more meaningful form called information.

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1. Storage: storage of data/Information could take place at any stage for future purposes. The double-headed arrows show the storage of data/information at one time, and the stored data/information serving as input for processing at another time.
2. Output: This is the result of the processed data (information). At times, the information produced today could be distributed to the appropriate end-users; at some other times, the information could be used as input for another data processing cycle.
3. Distribution: This is the dissemination of information produced, to the appropriate quarters for decision-making. The decision-makers are the end-users of information.

• Data Processing Techniques

Various Data processing techniques available are discussed as follows.

1. Batch Processing: This is a processing technique whereby many individual jobs/transactions are collected together (i.e. batched) and periodically processed against a master file using a single program loading. For instance, before the advent of online banking, many banks adopted batch processing where records of customer deposits made throughout the day are collected and batched for processing in the night (nightly processing) against the master file of account balances. However, if batch processing is used to process withdrawals, criminals would not have to use guns to rob banks! Batch processing is also applicable in payroll system which processes the different employee’s payslip individually in a single continuous operation. It is also applicable in billing system.

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1. Online-Processing: On-line processing: is the technique of using computer to process data by means of terminals connected to and controlled by a central processor. On-line systems involve the receipt of data directly from the point of origin through a variety of input/output terminal devices with telecommunication capabilities. On-line processing provides direct access to information files by terminal users and also enables them to update files with transaction data.

1. Time Sharing: Time-sharing: This processing technique allocates several small equal time slices to terminal users as their jobs are being processed. For instance, the computer might allocate 100 milliseconds (ms) to user 1, then 100ms to user 2, and then 100ms to user 3 and so on. If there are 100 users on the computer, it will allocate 100ms to each user before it returns to the top of the job queue and gives each user another round of 100ms. By so doing, the computer is able to work so quickly that each user feels as if he/she has exclusive use of the computer system. As new user jobs are presented to the computer or are finished, they are respectively added to or deleted from the job queue.

1. Real-Time processing: Real-time processing: is an on-line technique which is able to receive input data from various sources and which is able to process that data sufficiently rapidly to be capable of influencing the sources of the data.

• Distributed vs. Centralized Processing: A combination of local and remote computer terminals in a network connected to a central computer to divide the workload. A Distributed data processing facility is one in which computers, usually smaller computers, are dispersed throughout the organization. The objective of such disperse is to process

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Computer Operation | ICT for AP TET 2022

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

7.1          Computer Users

ser is an agent, either a human agent (end-user) or software agent, who uses a computer or network service. Users are also widely characterized as the class of people that use a

system without the complete technical expertise required to understand the system fully. Computer users can be classified into the following categories based on the way they think about computers.

Application-oriented Users

The vast majority of computer users are application-oriented. They have training and experience exclusively with commercial software. They understand concepts peculiar to computers such as files, folders, saving, and deleting. They live in a WYSIWYG world; although they may be aware that what they see on the screen is not an entirely accurate representation of what the computer is actually doing, they are not interested in understanding hidden implementations. They have learned how to map their thinking onto the capabilities of the applications they regularly use, and they accept whatever limitations that thinking may impose. They are pragmatic, learning as much as they need to get their work done. A new problem requires a new piece of software. Spreadsheet

―programmers‖  fall  into  this category,  as  may  some programmers who work primarily with application scripting tools such as Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications. Nearly all commercial

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software is targeted at this group of users, who can be considered

―computer-literate.‖

Goal-oriented users

The second largest group consists of goal-oriented users. These users focus exclusively on the goals they want to accomplish and neither understands nor cares about the software they use to accomplish those goals. This could be called the ―I just want to type a letter‖ group. They only see the final product. They do not care about, for example, the difference between a word processor document and a PDF image of that same document, so they do not understand why they can make textual edits to one and not the other. They could be described as ―computer-illiterate,‖ even if they work with computers on a regular basis. Many very intelligent people, scientists and scholars, fall into this category. They are frustrated by the limitations of the software they use because they do not understand the reasons for those limitations. Though they may use common  terms  such  as  ―files,‖  they  typically  map  those  concepts onto their real-world metaphorical analogues, resulting in confusion. (―Why can‘t I keep this picture in my email file?‖)

Original Computer Users

The third and smallest group of computer users ironically, the original computer users is comprised of hackers. Hackers are computer-oriented computer users. They have learned how to think like a computer, to understand the processes the computer goes through. They favor small tools (e.g. the command line, shell scripts) over large applications because they want to be in precise control of what the computer is doing at all times. They comfortably work  with  data  in  ―raw‖  formats  such  as  text  files.  This  does  not necessarily mean they are tied down with minutiae of implementation; often they can work at much higher levels of abstraction than other users. Hackers tend to seek out the abstract

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patterns inherent in whatever end result they are working towards, then implement those patterns in the computer. A new problem rarely requires new tools, merely a new application of existing tools. They will create whatever new tools are needed to bring the computer up to the level of the problem, rather than trying to adapt the problem to fit the computer. On the other hand, their solutions tend to be brittle, with a lot of exposed complexity that makes them unsuitable for non-hacker users.

7.2             System Booting

When we start our Computer, there is an operation which is performed automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting, System will check all the hardware‘s and Software‘s those are installed or Attached with the System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a system. In the Booting Process all the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip will also be Loaded for Running the System. In the Booting Process the System will read all the information from the Files those are Stored into the ROM Chip and the ROM chip will read all the instructions those are Stored into these Files. After the Booting of the System this will automatically display all the information on the System. The Instructions those are necessary to Start the System will be read at the Time of Booting. There are two Types of Booting.

1. Cold Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State Means when we Starts our System this is called a cold Booting. In the cold Booting the System will be started from its beginning State means first of all, the user will press the Power Button, then this will read all the instructions from the ROM and the Operating System will be automatically gets loaded into the System RAM.

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1. Warm Booting: The warm Booting is that in which System Automatically Starts when we are Running the System, For Example due to Light Fluctuation the system will Automatically Restarts So that in this Chances Damaging of system are more, and the System will not be start from its initial State So May Some Files will be Damaged because they are not Properly Stored into the System.

7.3             Occupational Health and Safety

• Basic Description of Occupational health and safety Occupational health and safety is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of all occupational health and safety programs is to foster a safe work environment. As a secondary effect, it may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, suppliers, nearby communities, and other members of the public who are impacted by the workplace environment. It  may involve             interactions      among            many                  subject    areas,    including occupational medicine, occupational (or industrial) hygiene, public health, safety engineering, chemistry, health physics. Occupational health should aim at:
  • The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations;
  • The prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions;
  • The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health;
  • The placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities;

These regulations are concerned with the working environment. They place a duty on employers to make sure that the workplace is

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safe and suitable for the tasks being carried out there, and that it does not present risks to employees and others.

7.3.2        Regulation For Maintaining Health and Safety

The regulations for maintaining health & safety in the working environment, includes:

1. maintenance of the workplace, equipment, devices and systems
   1. ventilation
   1. temperature in indoor workplaces
   1. lighting
   1. cleanliness and waste materials
   1. room dimensions and space
   1. work stations and seating
   1. condition of floors and traffic routes
   1. falls or falling objects
   1. windows and transparent or translucent doors, gates and walls
   1. windows, skylights and ventilators
   1. ability to clean windows, etc. safely
   1. doors and gates
   1. escalators and moving walkways
   1. sanitary conveniences
   1. washing facilities
   1. drinking water
   1. accommodation for clothing
   1. facilities for changing clothing
   1. Facilities for rest and to eat meals.

7.3.3          Why Occupational Health and Safety

Some reason for occupation health and safety are;

1. Occupational health and safety promote health and safety procedures in organizations.

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1. Help to recognize hazards and measure health and safety risks, set suitable safety controls in place, and give recommendations on avoiding accidents to management and employees in an organizations.
   1. An effective training program can reduce the number of injuries and deaths, property damage, legal liability, illnesses, workers’ compensation claims, and missed time from work.
   1. Safety training classes help establish a safety culture in which employees themselves help promote proper safety procedures while on the job. It is important that new employees be properly trained and embraces the importance of workplace safety as it is easy for seasoned workers to negatively influence the new hires.

7.3.4          Safety and Health Hazards

The terminology used in OSH varies but generally speaking a hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled. The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard. A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular outcome will occur and the severity of the harm involved. ―Hazard‖, ―risk‖, and

―outcome‖  are  used  in  other  fields  to  describe  e.g.  environmental damage, or damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH,

―harm‖   generally   describes   the   direct   or   indirect   degradation, temporary or permanent, of the physical, mental, or social well- being of workers. For example, repetitively carrying out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard. The outcome could be a musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) or an acute back or joint injury.

7.3.5        Nigerian Occupational Health and Safety Bill

The Bill to enact a law that would take care of the health and safety of industrial workers passed through second reading on the floor of the Senate on 25^th February, 2009. The bill sponsored by Senator

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Chris Anyanwu which was committed to the senate committees on Labor, Health seeks amongst other things to ensure that employers of labor are properly protected.

Highlights of Nigerian Occupational Health and Safety Bill

1. To make further provisions for securing the safety, health and welfare of persons at work
   1. To make provisions  for protecting others against  risks to safety or health in connection with the activities of persons at work
   1. To establish the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health to create a general framework for the improvement of working conditions and the working environment
   1. To prevent accidents and departures from health arising out of or in the course of work
   1. To ensure the provision of occupational safety and health services to workers in all sectors of economic activity
   1. The bill is also to establish the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health Hazards and for related issues with the following functions
   1. To ensure employee safety and health in Nigeria by working with employers and employees to create better working environments
   1. To act as a regulatory agency by issuing safety and health standards that is enforceable under Nigerian safety law.

7.4              Computer Health and Safety

• Description Of Computer Health And Safety

The number of computers in the workplace has increased rapidly over the last few years and it is now quite normal for most staff in organizations to be exposed to computer usage. The Health and Safety at Work Act lays down legal standards for computer

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equipment and requires employers to take steps to minimize risks for all workers. Improving health and safety practice should be taken seriously, although it need not take much time or expense. Measures employers should take include:

1. Understanding the law – make sure someone in your organization has a health and safety brief covering all areas, not just computers.
   1. Being aware of the health risks – the government officially recognizes some of the risks although there are some grey areas you’ll need to make up your own mind about.
   1. Assessing the risks – using procedures set out in the law – be systematic and get help if you need it. Get a health and safety audit done by a competent organization if necessary.
   1. Taking steps to minimize the risks – this may only involve taking simple measures.
   1. Training all users to recognize the risks – if people aren’t aware of the dangers they can’t take adequate precautions to protect their health.
   1. Taking users views seriously – if users feel there is something wrong there often is.

7.4.2            Risks within Computer Environment

The main risks associated with using computers include:

1. Musculoskeletal problems
   1. Eye strain

Hint‘ Rashes and other skin complaints have also been reported, although it is thought these are caused by the dry atmosphere and static electricity associated with display units rather than by the display units themselves.

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Musculoskeletal problems

These can range from general aches and pains to more serious problems which include

1. Upper limb disorders such as repetitive strain injury (RSI) and carpal tunnel syndrome – by far the most important as it can quickly lead to permanent incapacity
2. Back and neck pain and discomfort
3. Tension stress headaches and related ailments

Causes of Musculoskeletal Problems

1. Maintaining an unnatural or unhealthy posture while using the computer
2. Inadequate lower back support
3. Sitting in the same position for an extended period of time
4. An ergonomically poor workstation set up

Eye Strain

Computer users can experience a number of symptoms related to vision as follow:

1. Visual fatigue
2. Blurred or double vision
3. Burning and watering eyes
4. Headaches and frequent changes in prescription glasses Computer work hasn’t been proven to cause permanent eye damage, but the     temporary       discomfort   that      may     occur   can         reduce productivity, cause lost work time and reduce job satisfaction.

Causes of Eye Strain

1. Eye problems are usually the result of visual fatigue
2. Glare from bright windows or strong light sources
3. Light reflecting off the display screen
4. Poor display screen contrast

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7.4.3          Precaution to Prevent Risk Associated With Computer

Musculoskeletal     Problems:     General     precautions     to    avoid musculoskeletal problems include:

1. Taking regular breaks from working at your computer – a few minutes at least once an hour
   1. Alternating work tasks
   1. Regular stretching to relax your body
   1. Using equipment such as footrests, wrist rests and document holders if you need to
   1. Keeping your mouse and keyboard at the same level
   1. Avoiding gripping your mouse too tightly – hold the mouse lightly and click gently
   1. Familiarize yourself with keyboard shortcuts for applications you regularly use (to avoid overusing the mouse)
   1. It is also important to have your workstation set up correctly. Your workstation includes monitor, keyboard, mouse, seating, desk, and where appropriate, footrest (to enable you to put your feet flat if they would otherwise not reach the floor), wrist rest, and document holder.

Monitors should

1. Swivel, tilt and elevate – if not use an adjustable stand, books or blocks adjust the height
2. Be positioned so the top line of the monitor is no higher than your eyes or no lower than 20° below the horizon of your eyes or field of vision
3. Be at the same level and beside the document holder if you use one
4. Be between 18 to 24 inches away from your face

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Keyboards should

1. Be detachable and adjustable (with legs to adjust angle)
2. Allow your forearms to be parallel to the floor without raising your elbows
3. Allow your wrists to be in line with your forearms so your wrists does not need to be flexed up or down
4. Include enough space to rest your wrists or should include a padded detachable wrist rest (or you can use a separate gel wrist rest which should be at least 50 mm deep)
5. Be placed directly in front of the monitor and at the same height as the mouse, track ball or touch pad

Chairs should

1. Support the back – and have a vertically adjustable independent back rest that returns to its original position and has tilt adjustment to support the lower back
2. Allow chair height to be adjusted from a sitting position
3. Be adjusted so the back crease of the knee is slightly higher than the pan of the chair (use a suitable footrest where necessary)
4. Be supported by a five prong caster base
5. Have removable and adjustable armrests
6. Have a contoured seat with breathable fabric and rounded edges to distribute the weight and should be adjustable to allow the seat pan to tilt forward or back

Tables and desks should

1. Provide sufficient leg room and preferably be height adjustable
2. Have enough room to support the computer equipment and space for documents
3. Be at least 900 mm deep
4. Have rounded corners and edges

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Avoiding Eyestrain

Precautions that can be taken to avoid eyestrain include:

1. Exercising the eyes by periodically focusing on objects at varying distances
2. Blinking regularly
3. Keeping the air around you moist – for example using plants, open pans of water or a humidifier (spider plants are said to be particularly good for this and removing chemical vapors from the air)
4. Adjusting the screen height / seating so that when sitting comfortably your eyes are in line with the top of the monitor screen
5. Adjusting the brightness control on your monitor for comfort
6. Adjusting the contrast on your monitor to make the characters distinct from the background
7. Adjusting the refresh rate of your monitor to stop it flickering
8. Positioning monitors to avoid glare (e.g. not directly in front of windows)
9. Keeping your monitor the screen clean
10. Keeping the screen and document holder (if you use one) at the same distance from your eyes
11. Servicing, repairing or replacing monitors that flicker or have inadequate clarity
12. Regular eye testing – do this at least once every 2 years and more frequently if necessary – especially if you are experiencing eye problems related to using display equipment. Indicate the distance from your eyes to the monitor to your optician and talk to them regarding special lenses or the use of bifocals.

• environments

Computer Software | ICT For AP TET2022 | Best Notes

by admin | Jun 19, 2022 | Uncategorised

Description Of Computer Software

Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine- readable instructions (most often in the form of a computer program) that directs a computer’s processor to perform specific operations. Software is a general term. It can refer to all computer instructions in general or to any specific set of computer instructions. It is inclusive of both machine instructions (the binary code that the processor understands) and source code (more human- understandable instructions that must be rendered into machine code by compilers or interpreters before being executed). In most computer platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad

categories:

Figure 5a: Organization of Computer Software

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5.2             System Software

System software is a group of programs that contribute to the control and performance of the computer system. System software manages and supports the operations of computer systems and networks. They are usually provided by the computer manufacturers. System software is made up of systems management programs and systems development programs.

• System Management Programs manage the hardware, software, network, and data resources of the computer system during its execution of the various information- processing jobs of users. Examples are operating systems, network management programs, database management systems, and system utilities.
  • System Development Programs help users develop information system programs and procedures and prepare user programs for computer processing. Examples are programming language translators and editors.

5.3              Operating Systems

An operating system is a collection of programs which takes over the operation of the computer to the extent of being able to allow a number of programs to be run on the computer without human interventions by an operator. Examples of operating systems on mainframe and minicomputers are IBM-OS/VS, IBM-OS/400 and ICL-VME. On microcomputers, examples include MS-DOS, WINDOWS and LINUX.

Functions of Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) performs five basic functions in the operation of a computer system, namely, providing a user interface, resource management, task management, file management, as well as utilities and support services.

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1. The User Interface: This is the part of the operating system that allows the user to communicate with it so that the user can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks. The main types of user interfaces are
2. Resource Management: An operating system uses a variety of resource management programs to manage the hardware and networking resources of a computer system, including its CPU, memory, secondary storage devices, telecommunications processors, and input/output peripherals. For example, memory management programs keep track of where data and programs are stored.
3. File Management: An operating system contains file management programs that control the creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs. File management also involves keeping track of the physical location of files on magnetic disks and other secondary storage devices. So, operating system maintains directories of information about the location and characteristics of files stored on a computer systems secondary storage device.
4. Task Management: The task management programs of an operating system manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end-users. They give each task a slice of a CPU‘s time and interrupt the CPU operations to substitute other tasks. Task management may involve a multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the same time. Multitasking may take the form of multiprogramming, where the CPU can process the tasks of several programs at the same time, or timesharing, where the computing tasks of several users can be processed at the same time.

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• System Utilities: Utility programs are type of system management software that are marketed as separate programs or are included as part of an operating system. Utilities perform miscellaneous housekeeping and file conversion functions. Examples include data backup, data recovery, virus protection, data compression, and file defragmentation.

5.4              Utilities and Service Programs

These are systems programs that provide facilities for performing common tasks of routine nature. The main types include.

1. Sort    is    a    program    used   to   arrange    records    into   a predetermined sequence by reference to a record key.
2. Editors are used at a terminal and provide facilities for the creation or amendment of programs.
3. File Copying is a program that copies data from one medium to another, for example, from diskettes to hard disk.
4. File Renaming is a program that changes the name of a file to another.
5. File Backup is a program that copies data or file from one medium to another for security purposes.
6. Disk Formatting is a program that prepares a disk or diskette for the purpose of receiving and storing data..
7. Dump is a program that is used to copy the contents of the main storage onto an output medium such as paper.
8. File maintenance is a program that carries out the process of insertion and deletion of records in any file. It can also make amendments to standing data in records.
9. Tracing and Debugging is used in conjunction with the testing of application programs on the computer. Tracing involves dumping to locate errors. Debugging is the process of eliminating errors from a program.

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5.5              Programming Languages

A programming language describes the way in which the instructions that make up a computer program are written. The three basic types of programming languages are machine language, assembly language and high-level language.

5.5.1        Machine Languages

A machine language is a programming language composed of numeric instructions. It is made up of strings of binary digits specific to a particular make and model of computer. When programming in machine language, an appropriate set of storage locations must be allocated for both the program and the data before any actual instructions can be written. The interpretation of a machine language program is a direct function of the computer hardware circuitry.

Advantages of Machine Languages

1. They are very flexible. They allow programmers to make efficient use of the computer‘s capabilities.
   1. The concepts of machine language programming involve simply transferring data into and out of the accumulator.

Disadvantages of Machine Languages

1. Machine language programming is very detailed; therefore, an actual program can be quite complicated.
2. Tedious bookkeeping is involved in writing machine language programs.
3. Machine language programs are difficult to correct for errors and difficult to alter.
4. Every computer model has its own machine language; hence machine language programs are machine dependent.

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5.5.2        Assembly Language

An assembly language is a programming language made up of operation mnemonics and symbolic data locations. The assembly language programmer makes use of instruction mnemonics and symbolic names of addresses rather than work with operation codes and operand addresses.

Advantages of Assembly Language

1. The task of learning and writing the language is easier than with machine language.
   1. Macroinstructions enable one instruction to be translated into several machine language instructions.
   1. Assembly languages can be used for programming closed subroutines.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

1. Assembly languages are more difficult to learn than high- level languages.
2. An assembly language program is more difficult to modify than corresponding high-level language program.
3. An assembly language is machine dependent.

5.5.3        High-Level Languages

A high-level computer language is a programming language composed of instructions written in English words (for business applications) or in mathematical notations (for scientific applications).The two main purposes of a high-level language are:

1. To improve the productivity of programmers because high- level languages are relatively easier to learn and a statement written in a high-level language would produce several machine code instructions.

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1. To enable programs to be used on different types of computers without the need to rewrite the programs completely.

Advantages of High-Level Languages

1. Instructions are more like English (for business applications) or more like mathematical notations (for scientific applications), so the languages are easier to learn, easier to write and easier to understand.
2. They are developed for use on more than one type of computer. That is, they are machine independent.
3. Programs written in a high-level language are easier to modify and to test.
4. Programmers trained in the use of a high-level language do not need to learn an entirely new language to work on a new computer.
5. Programs can be written by persons not possessing a detailed knowledge of computers because high-level languages are problem-oriented.

Disadvantages of High-Level Languages

1. The fact that high-level languages can be used for different makes of computers does not allow them to take advantage of specific facilities on individual computers.
2. Programs written in high-level languages are unlikely to be as efficient, in terms of processing speed and the use of internal storage space, as programs written in machine language or in assembly language.

5.6             Translators

A translator is a systems program that converts statements written in one programming language into statements in the computer language. The statements in a programming language are called

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source program. The statements in the computer language are called object program. The three types of translators are Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters.

5.6.1        Assembler

An assembler (or a symbolic assembly program) is a program specially developed by the computer manufacturer to assist the programmer in the preparation of machine-code programs from programs written in symbolic language.

5.6.2        Compiler

A compiler is a program specially written by the computer manufacturer for the purpose of translating a program written in high level language into machine language.

5.6.3        Interpreter

The interpreter is used to translate high-level language programs. It deals with the source program one instruction at a time, completely translating and executing each instruction before it goes on to the next.

The advantage of the Interpreter over a compiler is that it is suitable for interactive work, where the programmer wishes to modify or test the program on-line as it is being developed.

• Applications Software & Application Programs Applications software is a group of programs that are developed to solve particular problems. They directly provide the processing that users want to have performed. They may be produced by the computer manufacturer or supplier, a software house, or the computer user. They are of two types, application programs and application packages.

• Application programs are mostly written by the users to carry out a task, e.g. payroll programs; hence they are also called user programs or tailor-made programs.

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• Application packages are ready-made generalised programs with associated documentations for solving business and other problems.

Advantages of Application Software

1. The user gets a well-tried and tested program.
2. Implementation is quicker and possibly cheaper.
3. Systems design, programming and systems testing are minimised.
4. Systems documentation is provided with the packages.
5. Efficiency in terms of speed, storage requirements and accuracy.
6. Portability from the existing computer system to another.

Disadvantages of Application Packages

1. It may be inefficient due to the inclusion of irrelevant features.
2. It might be used even when it is not completely suitable to the particular application.
3. The user is dependent on the supplier for the maintenance of the package.
4. No immediate help on site when a serious problem occurs.
5. May not be updated in line with legislation, e.g. VAT rates.

5.8              Application Software Selection

There are various considerations before one select application software for his or her business organization or individual personal uses. Some of the considerations are described as follows.

1. Comprehensiveness. The package must satisfy user‘s requirements.
2. Cost. It should be affordable to the user.

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1. Reliability. The package should have been used by other organisations for some time with considerable degree of success.
2. Flexibility. It should be fairly easy to be amended, modified and upgraded.
3. Portability. The package should be suitable for use with any computer system acquired in the future by the user.
4. Interfacing. The package should link up conveniently with existing systems and routines.
5. Peripherals. The input and output hardware devices required by the package should be compatible with the user‘s existing devices.
6. Storage. The package should be able to be accommodated within the main storage and backing storage existing on the user‘s system.
7. Documentation. It must be well documented. The procedures for input, processing and output should be clearly documented.
8. Timing. The time required to process a particular application, such as payroll, should be compared on a number of similar packages.

5.9              Software Suites

A software suite consists of most widely used productivity packages bundled together. Examples are Microsoft Office, Lotus Smart Suite and Corel Word Perfect Office. Each suite typically integrates software packages for word processing, spreadsheets, presentation graphics, database management and personal information management. Each suite may contain other programs such as programs for Internet access and web publishing.

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Advantages of Software Suite

1. It costs a lot less than the total cost of buying its individual packages separately.
2. All programs use a similar graphical user interface (GUI) of icons, tool and status bars, menus, and so on, which gives them the same look and feel, and makes them easier to learn and use.
3. All programs share common tools such as spell checkers and help wizards to increase their efficiency.
4. The programs are designed to work together seamlessly, and import each other‘s files easily, no matter which program is in use at the time. This makes them more efficient and easier to use than using a variety of individual package versions.

Disadvantages of Software Suite

1. Many software suite features are never used by most end users.
2. The suite takes up a lot of disk space.